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79.
Deborah Mayo is a philosopher of science who has attempted to capture the implications of the new experimentalism in a philosophically rigorous way. Mayo focuses on the detailed way in which claims are validated by experiment, and is concerned with identifying just what claims are borne out and how. A key idea underlying her treatment is that a claim can only be said to be supported by experiment if the various ways in which the claim could be as fault have been investigated and eliminated. A claim can only be said to be borne out by experiment, and a severe test of a claim, as usefully construed by Mayo, must be such that the claim would be unlikely to pass it if it were false.
Her idea can be explained by some simple examples. Suppose Snell’s law of refraction of light is tested by some very rough experiments in which very large margins of error are attributed to the measurements of angles of incidence and refraction, and suppose that the results are shown to be compatible with the law within those margins of error. Has the law been supported by experiments that have severely tested it? From Mayo’s perspective the answer is “no” because, owing to the roughness of the measurements, the law of refraction would be quite likely to pass this test even if it were false and some other law differing not too much from Snell’s law true. An exercise I carried out in my school-teaching days serves to drive this point home. My students had conducted some not very careful experiments to test Snell’s law. I then presented them with some alternative laws of refraction that had been suggested in antiquity and mediaeval times, prior to the discovery of Snell’s law, and invited the students to test them with the measurements they had used to test Snell’s law; because of the wide margins of error they had attributed to their measurements, all of these alternative laws pass the test. This clearly brings out the point that the experiments in question did not constitute a severe test of Snell’s law. The law would have passed the test even if it were false and one of the historical alternatives true.
[1] Which of the following conclusion can be drawn from the passage?
(A) Experimental data might support multiple theoretical explanations at the same time, hence validity of theories needs to be tested further.
(B) Precise measurement is a sufficient condition to ensure validity of conclusions resulting from an experiment.
(C) Precise measurement is both a necessary and sufficient condition to ensure validity of conclusions resulting from an experiment.
(D) Precise measurement along with experimenter’s knowledge of the theory underpinning the experiment is sufficient to ensure the validity of conclusions drawn from experiments.
(E) All of these
[2] As per Mayo’s perspective, which of the following best defines the phrase “scientific explanation”?
(A) One which is most detailed in its explanation of natural phenomena.
(B) One which has been thoroughly tested by scientific experts.
(C) One which survives examinations better than other explanations.
(D) One which refutes other explanations convincingly.
(E) All of these.[3] The author’s use of Snell's law of refraction to illustrate Mayo’s perspective can best said to be
(A) Contrived.
(B) Premeditated.
(C) Superfluous.
(D) Illustrative.
(E) Inadequate.asked in XAT
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80.
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81.
History, if viewed as a repository not merely of anecdotes or chronology, could produce a decisive transformation in the image of science by which we are now possessed. That image has previously been drawn, even by scientists themselves, mainly from the study of finished scientific achievements as these are recorded in the classics and, more recently, in the textbooks from which each new scientific generation learns to practice its trade.
[1] Which of the following best summarizes the above paragraph?
(A) Scientific achievements are recorded in classics and text books.
(B) History of science can be inferred from finished scientific achievement
(C) Different ways of looking at history can produce altogether different knowledge.
(D) Text books may be biased.
(E) All of above.[2] Which of the following statements is the author most likely to agree with?
(A) History of science presents a scientific way of looking at scientific developments and thus contributes to progress in science.
(B) History of science should contain only the chronology of the scientific achievements.
(C) More number of scientific theories results in more number of publications, which benefits publishers.
(D) History of science should purposely present different images of science to people.
(E) History of science can present multiple interpretations to people regarding the process of scientific developments.asked in XAT
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82.
The Bistupur-Sakchi corner needs a speed-breaker. Loyola school children cross this intersection, on their way to the school, and many a times do not check out for traffic. I get to read regular reports of cars and other vehicles hitting children. I know that speed-breakers are irritating for drivers, and I know that children cannot be protected from every danger, but this is one of the worst intersections in town. There needs to be a speed-breaker so that vehicles have to slow down and the children be made safer.
[1] Which of the following arguments is used in the above passage?
(A) Analogy - comparing the intersection to something dangerous.
(B) Emotive - referring to the safety of children to get people interested.
(C) Statistical analysis - noting the number of children hit by vehicles.
(D) Personalization - telling the story of one child’s near accident at the intersection.
(E) Attack - pointing out people who are against speed-breakers as being uncaring about children.[2] According to a recent research conducted by the district road planning department, ten percent students come with parents in cars, twenty percent students use auto-rickshaws, twenty percent students use taxis, forty percent students use the school buses and ten percent students live in the hostel inside the school.
Which of the following is true about the above paragraph?
(A) It extends speaker’s argument using analogy.
(B) It extends the speaker’s argument using statistical data.
(C) It is similar to speaker’s argument.
(D) It concludes speaker’s argument by using personalization.
(E) It contradicts the speaker’s argument using statistical data.asked in XAT
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83.
Hindi ought to be the official language of India. There is no reason for the government to spend money printing documents in different languages, just to cater to people who cannot read/write Hindi. The government has better ways to spend tax payers’ money. People across India should read/write Hindi or learn it at the earliest.
[1] Which of the following, if true, would weaken the speaker’s argument the most?
(A) The government currently translates official documents into more than eighteen languages.
(B) Hindi is the most difficult language in the world to speak.
(C) Most people who travel across India learn Hindi within five years.
(D) Making Hindi the official language is a politically unpopular idea.
(E) People who are multilingual usually pay maximum taxes.[2] United Nations members contribute funds, proportionate to their population, for facilitating smooth functioning of the UN. By 2010, India, being the most populous nation on the planet, would contribute the maximum amount to the UN. Therefore, official language of United Nations should be changed to Hindi.
Which of the following is true?
(A) The point above contradicts the speaker’s argument.
(B) The point above extends the speaker’s argument.
(C) The point above is similar to speaker’s argument.
(D) The point above concludes speaker’s argument.
(E) The point above strengthens the speaker’s argument.asked in XAT
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84.
According to recent reports, CEOs of large organisations are paid more than CEOs of small organisations. It does not seem fair that just because a CEO is heading a big organisation s/he should be paid more. CEOs’ salary should be related to performance, especially growth in terms of sales and profits. Of course, big organisations are more complex than the small, but all CEOs require significant amount of energy and time in managing organisations. There is no proof that CEOs of big organisations are more stressed than CEOs of small organisations. All CEOs should be paid according to their performance.
[1] A person seeking to refute the argument might argue that
(A) CEOs should be paid equally.
(B) Managing big organisation is more challenging than small.
(C) CEOs, who travel more should be paid more.
(D) If CEOs of small companies perform well, the company would become big and so would be CEOs’ salary.
(E) Highly qualified CEOs should be paid more because they have acquired difficult education.[2] Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the speaker’s argument?
(A) CEOs of small organisations come from good educational background.
(B) CEOs of big organisations are very difficult to hire.
(C) A few big family businesses have CEOs from within the family.
(D) Big organisations contribute more towards moral development of society.
(E) CEOs in big organisation take much longer to reach top, as compared to their counterparts in small organisations.asked in XAT
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